A modern formation from Greek τέλος (TEH-loss, end or purpose) and the combining form meaning ‘study’ or ‘account’. Aristotle’s relevant expression is ‘that for the sake of which’. Here, ‘teleological’ asks what learning is directed towards and whether its methods serve that end.
Aristotle, Physics, II.3 and II.8. Word history.
From Latin eruditio (instruction or learning), related to erudire (to educate), formed from e- and rudis (untrained or unpolished). Augustine’s On Christian Doctrine permits Christians to appropriate truths and useful learning from pagan writers. Learning acquires its proper employment through the purpose it serves rather than its provenance.
Augustine, On Christian Doctrine, II.40.60. Word history.
A modern adjective derived from ἐπιστήμη (eh-pis-TAY-may, knowledge). Aristotle gives demonstrative knowledge a most peculiarly demanding criterion; namely, understanding why something holds through its chain of causes, and why it cannot be otherwise than Nature offers it. Neither Aristotle nor Sextus licenses treating confidence, hope, or public opinion as sufficient warrant for a conclusion.
Aristotle, Posterior Analytics, I.2, 71b9–12; Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism, I.1–4. Word history.
The negative prefix in- qualifies a word-family descending from Latin dependere (to hang from or depend upon). Anselm supplies philosophical examples in the prologue to the Monologion.
Anselm, Monologion, prologue. Word history.
Related to Greek παιδαγωγός (pie-dah-goh-GOSS, an attendant who leads a child), through Latin paedagogus. In Plato’s Lysis, the boy’s attendant is an enslaved member of the household who conducts him to his teachers. The modern adjective has expanded to concern teaching methods generally.
Plato, Lysis, 208c–d. Word history.
Through Old French covenir (to agree), from Latin convenire (to come together or agree). Augustine discusses divine covenants in The City of God, including their relation to command, obligation and transgression. In the column, ‘covenant’ applies that stronger language of fidelity to an educational undertaking than would be demanded by current British law.
Augustine, The City of God, XVI.27. Word history.
From Old French eschiver (to avoid), with a Germanic ancestry related to ‘shy’. It has no direct Greek or Latin philosophical pedigree. Sextus’s ἐποχή (eh-poh-KAY, suspension of judgement), follows when opposing considerations appear equally persuasive.
Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism, I.8–10 and I.23–24. Word history.
From French pédant, through Italian pedante (schoolmaster); its deeper derivation is uncertain. Augustine offers a close conceptual parallel when he criticises an education more offended by a grammatical fault than by hatred of another person. His objection concerns disordered priorities.
Augustine, Confessions, I.18.28–29. Word history.
From French platitude (flatness), related to plat (flat), and much later than the authors considered here. Aristotle’s γνώμη (GNOH-may, maxim) is a useful comparison. He considers when a maxim needs supporting reasons and when it does not.
Aristotle, Rhetoric, II.21, 1394a–1395b. Word history.
An English compound joining ‘self’ to a word descended from Latin adulatio (flattery), from adulari (to flatter or fawn upon). Augustine examines both the appetite for praise and the inward satisfaction through which a person congratulates himself even without an audience. His concern is a corrupted estimate of one’s goodness and its source. ‘Self-adulation’ aptly describes that temptation.
Augustine, Confessions, X.38.63–39.64. Word history.
From Late Latin reprehensibilis, through reprehendere (to take hold of, restrain or rebuke). The word identifies conduct deserving reproach. For Anselm, justice requires rectitudo voluntatis (rectitude of will) maintained for its own sake. Outward conformity pursued solely under compulsion or for reward does not suffice.
Anselm, On Truth, 12. Word history.
Through French vertu, from Latin virtus (excellence, courage or worth), historically related to vir (man). It commonly translates Greek ἀρετή (ah-reh-TAY, excellence). Aristotle’s ethical virtue is a disposition involving choice, with the appropriate mean determined by reason.
Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, II.5–6, especially 1106b36–1107a2. Word history.
Related to Latin adumbrare (to shade or represent in outline), from umbra (shadow). In its expository sense, it offers a preliminary sketch. Aristotle provides a close methodological parallel in Ethics when he presents an outline of human flourishing.
Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, I.7, 1098a20–26. Word history.
From Latin inculcare (to tread in or press upon), related to calcare (to trample) and calx (heel). Its educational sense concerns impressing something through repetition. Aristotle’s account of ἔθος (EH-thoss, habit) is a precursor. Functionally, what an institution repeatedly requires students to do may educate them more deeply than its declared ideals.
Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, II.1 and II.4. Word history.
‘Idol’ descends through Latin from εἴδωλον (eye-DOH-lon, image); ‘tribe’ descends from Latin tribus. The philosophical phrase is Bacon’s idola tribus (idols of the tribe), designating errors arising from human nature generally.
Bacon, Novum Organum, I.39–41 and I.45–52; Plato, Republic, VII, 514a–517c. Word history: idol; tribe.
From Late Latin soliloquium, combining solus (alone) and loqui (to speak). In Augustine’s Soliloquies, he converses with Reason about the knowledge he seeks, especially knowledge of God and the soul.
Augustine, Soliloquies, I.2.7. Word history.
Through Latin syllogismus, from συλλογισμός (soo-loh-gis-MOSS, deduction or reasoning together). Aristotle defines a deduction by the necessity with which a further conclusion follows from what has been posited. Ockham inherits this vocabulary and distinguishes demonstrative syllogisms from other kinds of argument.
Aristotle, Prior Analytics, I.1, 24b18–20; William of Ockham, Summa logicae, III-1.1. Word history.
Through French, from Italian brigante (fighter), related to brigare (to fight). Augustine’s Latin counterpart is the language of latrocinium (brigandage or robbery). In The City of God, an organised band of robbers has leadership, agreements and rules for dividing plunder, from which Augustine deduces that order in-itself seldom implies virtue.
Augustine, The City of God, IV.4. Word history.
From French chicanerie, connected with quibbling and contentious verbal manoeuvres. Aristotle’s On Sophistical Refutations examines arguments that appear to refute an opponent but fail to do so with logical force.
Aristotle, On Sophistical Refutations, 1, 164a20–165a3. Word history; chicane.
From Latin torpidus (numb or sluggish), related to torpere (to be numb or inactive). Augustine’s comparison between an irresolute will and someone repeatedly postponing waking gives a pertinent psychological-doxastic parallel. He recognises what he ought to do while remaining attached to the habits that prevent it.
Augustine, Confessions, VIII.5.12. Word history.
From Latin censura (judgement or assessment), related to censere (to assess or judge). Aristotle’s term is ψόγος (PSOH-goss, blame), contrasted with praise.
Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, III.1, 1109b30–1110b9. Word history.
From French adroit, related to à droit (rightly), ultimately through the word-family of Latin directus (straight or directed). Aristotle’s δεινότης (day-NOH-tays, cleverness) describes a capacity to find effective means to an end.
Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, VI.12–13, especially 1144a23–36. Word history.
From Latin sedulus (diligent or assiduous). Augustine’s account of reading Cicero’s Hortensius concerns a change in what his intellectual exertions sought.
Augustine, Confessions, III.4.7–8. Word history.
Through Latin sophisticus, from σοφιστικός (soh-fis-tee-KOSS, pertaining to a sophist), related to σοφιστής (soh-fis-TAYS, an expert or sophist) and σοφός (soh-FOSS, wise or skilled). In this column, ‘sophistic’ concerns the production of an appearance of intellectual success without the corresponding achievement.
Aristotle, On Sophistical Refutations, 1, especially 165a19–23. Word history.
From Latin persuasio, related to persuadere (to persuade). Plato’s corresponding Greek word is πειθώ (pay-THOH, persuasion). In the Gorgias, Socrates distinguishes persuasion that produces belief from instruction that produces knowledge. A teacher must consider what grounds the student’s assent, as well as whether that assent has been obtained.
Plato, Gorgias, 454c–455a. Word history.
From Latin alacritas (liveliness or eagerness), related to alacer (lively). Augustine’s discussion of cheerful teaching offers an educational application.
Augustine, On the Catechising of the Uninstructed, 2.4 and 10.14. Word history.
Through Latin from ἐτυμολογία (eh-too-moh-loh-GHEE-ah, an account of a word’s origin or true sense), related to ἔτυμος (EH-too-moss, true) and λόγος (LOH-goss, account). Plato’s Cratylus explores proposed derivations but also questions whether names reliably disclose reality.
References.
Anselm. Monologion. prologue. English translation by Jasper Hopkins and Herbert Richardson.
Anselm. On Truth (De veritate). 12. English translation by Jasper Hopkins and Herbert Richardson.
Aristotle. Nicomachean Ethics. II.5–6, especially 1106b36–1107a2; I.7, 1098a20–26; II.1 and II.4; III.1, 1109b30–1110b9; VI.12–13, especially 1144a23–36.
Aristotle. On Sophistical Refutations. 1, 164a20–165a3; 1, especially 165a19–23.
Aristotle. Physics. II.3 and II.8.
Aristotle. Posterior Analytics. I.2, 71b9–12.
Aristotle. Prior Analytics. I.1, 24b18–20.
Aristotle. Rhetoric. II.21, 1394a–1395b.
Augustine. Confessions. I.18.28–29; X.38.63–39.64; VIII.5.12; III.4.7–8; I.18.29; compare III.6.10 on the later encounter with the Manichaeans.
Augustine. On Christian Doctrine (De doctrina christiana). II.40.60; II.1.1–2.3.
Augustine. On the Catechising of the Uninstructed (De catechizandis rudibus). 2.4 and 10.14.
Augustine. Soliloquies. I.2.7.
Augustine. The City of God. XVI.27; IV.4.
Bacon. Novum Organum. I.39–41 and I.45–52.
Plato. Republic. VII, 514a–517c.
Sextus Empiricus. Outlines of Pyrrhonism. I.1–4; I.8–10 and I.23–24. English translation by R. G. Bury (1933).
William of Ockham. Summa logicae. III-1.1; I.64–65.
Cicero. Hortensius. Cited indirectly through Augustine, Confessions, III.4.7–8; see also reference [7] in the essay.
Collins English Dictionary. Online word-origin entries linked beside the notes.
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. Entries for adulation, etymology and key.
Oxford Reference. “Idols of the mind”.
